How Engaging Fathers in Social Work Intervention Impacts free essay sample

This literature review examines the relationship between social work professionals and families in relation to the role of the father, step father or partner, including the impact of their involvement on mothers and the development of children within the family in child protection cases of domestic abuse, substance abuse and sexual abuse. Findings in the literature are that social work professionals tend to focus on the mother rather than the father, the mother often being held culpable for the well being of the child while the father is overlooked in assessment. Main discussion points are individual professional values, and the reasons why professionals may choose to avoid the perpetrator rather than to involve him in assessments to achieve outcomes in the best interests of the child, which reveal constructions of stereotypes and gender discrimination that influence practice. The involvement of young fathers pre-natally and the role of Sure Start children’s centres in engaging young fathers with dads’ only activities are found to be key resources in the community for parenting skills, and absent father’s in prison are shown to have a positive contribution to children’s well being despite assumptions to the contrary and the restrictions of prison. Attachment theory of children to significant figures and role models and resilience is deliberated as are positive ways in which to engage and intervene with fathers that will result in better social outcomes for the child in education, peer relationships and their own self esteem and attitudes are acknowledged. Mothers with positive partner support were also found to be less punitive towards their children and suffer less from low self esteem and poor mental health issues. Introduction This literature review looks at how the inclusion or exclusion of fathers by professionals in social work interventions impacts on children’s well being, including their personal and social development, emotional health outcomes, attachment, resilience and future adult relationships. In the background, I will be looking at policy and legislation in relation to the governments’ long term sustainable strategy to improve the lives of children from 1998 to 2012 which has been developed to provide a framework to enable professionals to engage absent, reluctant and sometimes violent partners. It is my interest to uncover why it is more often than not the woman who is the main focus of intervention and assessments in social services, when often she is not the perpetrator of abuse but the victim of it, and equally, whether it is in the best interests of the child to focus more on the father. I think that it is important that some attention is given to the topic as a father who is ‘invisible’ to social services and resists engaging with professionals is not given the opportunity, or the support and advice of how to address his own issues and change his behaviour through anger management and substance or sexual abuse therapy and counselling. I will identify relevant theoretical frameworks evident in the literature review which inform social work practice in relation to family interventions within child protection. Aims and objectives. The aims and objectives of this study are to examine and ascertain why social work professionals have a tendency to exclude male partners in child protection work, the reasons of which may be through lack of training or experience, organisational pressures, or perhaps even by their own internalised gender biases. The objectives are to establish why fathers do not engage with services, and to look at the views of the fathers, mothers and children themselves. The literature review also aims to explore evidence that supports or disproves my hypothesis that the avoidance of men in social work intervention, and other service agencies, manifests in the personal values of the professional, and as gender stereotyping. Background The Children Act 1989 introduced the notion of parental responsibility and aims to ensure the welfare and the rights of the child. It stresses the importance of engaging parents and working in partnership with them to protect the child from harm and to aim for outcomes that are in the child’s est interests. The intentions of the Act were to not only strengthen the legal position of the child, but also to listen to the voice of the child and ensure that their feelings and wishes were taken into account, as well as to keep them informed as is age appropriate (O’Hagan, 1997, p. 26) (Care and the Law, 2008, [Online]). The main principles of the Act were to safeguard and promote the welfare of the child, partne rship, respect for the child, no delay, and parental responsibility. The philosophy of the Act was that the best place to bring a child up is in their own home, and the Local Authority should support the family to do that. State intervention should only occur if the threshold criteria to establish the likelihood of future harm under the Children Act 1989 was met (University of Bath, 2005, [Online]). However, Langan and Day (1991) (cited in O’Hagan, 1997, p. 26) criticised the 1989 Children Act for giving the impression that the family structure consists of a neat nuclear family that professionals work with, whereas in reality they are working with fragmented families in diverse settings. Father figures such as stepfathers, boyfriends or male partners may have little or no responsibility or involvement in the family unit, and it has been shown that workers actively avoid men who are significant in the child’s life. In 1995 research on child protection from the Department of Health showed that mothers involved in cases of physical abuse by men were the main focus of attention, their violent partners were largely ignored, and this highlighted the impact of gender bias in the child protection process. An emerging pattern indicated that while women were under included in support from services, they were over included in the attempts of agencies to control them (Owen and Farmer, 1998, pp 545-564). Gordon’s (1989) (cited in Owen and Farmer, 1998, pp. 545-564) study showed that women who sought help from professional agencies to protect themselves and their children from abuse, or for parenting difficulties, found that they themselves came under suspicion and felt that they were unjustly condemned for not protecting their children. In 2000, when piloted, the Department of Health Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, Family Pack of Questionnaire and Scales, helped social workers and families to identify areas where social service assistance could be provided, as well as signposting to other agencies. The parenting ‘daily hassles’ scale assesses the frequency, intensity and impact of 20 experiences that parents find to be a ‘hassle’. This information was used in the research of a parenting programme with families who experienced extreme difficulties parenting young children, and social workers reported that the scales specifically addressed areas where the parent or carer felt pressured (DoH, 2000). Consequently, the scales can be used as a basis for discussion to identify and highlight patterns of intensity over a time period of one or two months that the parent/carer experiences, and how often they occur. Areas to prioritise parenting issues can then be addressed (DoH, 2000). Similarly, home conditions are assessed such as safety, order and cleanliness. Findings from the total scores of the scales have shown that children’s abilities correlate with children’s developmental abilities in language and intellect. Children whose homes have low scores have been shown to have better outcomes in these development markers (DoH, 2000). In addition, high levels of children’s health problems associated with a reduction in social development and educational achievement were reported in 2001 in the National Health Interview Survey (NIHS) (cited in DoH, 2000). However, this does not mean that all children from higher scoring homes will be disadvantaged by poor intelligence. Importantly, in a holistic approach, this document uses the information and knowledge of the quality of the parent and child relationship to contribute to the overall assessment of the family (DoH, 2000). Furthermore, in 2002 Dominelli (2002, p. 7) stated that feminist social work developed out of social action in communities that was carried out by women working with women. To address women’s needs feminist social work must be used in conjunction with the holistic, ecological, systems and strengths based theoretical approaches to practice, which focuses on the interactions and nature of social relationships. This approach ensures that the needs and well-being of the people around the woman, such as men, children and other family members, are also recognised and addressed. In addition, the government’s 2003 Green Paper, Every Child Matters, took into account the tragic death of Victoria Climbie, the subsequent investigation and Lord Lamming’s report and recommendations, setting out the governments’ vision for reforming the delivery of services to young people, children and families, and aimed to create a framework of universal services. The changes aimed to address the needs of children at risk and to support them in developing their full potential, minimising any negative outcomes (Talking Point, 2010, [Online]). Moreover, the reforms aimed to reduce the numbers of children engaging in anti social behaviour, low educational achievement, teenage pregnancies and ill health. After consultation with a range of families, children and young people, the government identified five outcomes that were important to them and what they felt were essential to children’s well-being now and in future life. These were: * Being Healthy – good physical and mental health and a healthy lifestyle * Staying Safe – and to be protected from harm and neglect * Enjoying and Achieving – life skills for adulthood * Making a Positive Contribution – community involvement, not engaging in anti social or criminal behaviour * Economic Well-Being – not being prevented by socio economic disadvantage from achieving their full potential These five outcomes are firmly placed in Ofsted’s inspection framework and are now at the centre of local authority decision making (Talking Point, 2010, [Online]). Following on from this, the Adoption and Children Act 2004 extended the definition of child abuse and the harming of children to include seeing or hearing domestic violence or the ill-treatment of others, which can emotionally harm the child (Darlington Borough Council, 2013, [Online]). More recently, the Coalition Government’s emphasis on early intervention aims to promote better outcomes in later life and underpins policy that has extended free education entitlement to 15 hours to the most disadvantaged two year olds. (Department for Education,2012, [Online]). Equally, the ‘CANParent’ and relationship support pilots launched in May 2012, offer support for parenting classes and subsidised counselling and advice services to help new parents adjust to family life, while the Think Father’s campaign promotes the role of fathers in children’s lives and recognises that services working closely with mothers should not forget about the fathers, there still remains a lack of focus on fathers as a definite policy area despite previous and current government policy and initiatives (Cundy, 2012 [Online]). Literature Review The systematic search strategy used in this literature review used published data from 1989 up to 2012. The researcher used electronic academic databases and social care websites Medline; Community Care. co. uk; Oxford Journals; Ebrary; Athens; Sage; Oxford Journals; Scie and key policy websites Department for Children, Schools and Families, now the Department for Education; Equality and Human Rights Commission; Joseph Rowntree Foundation; Barnardos; Child Poverty Action Group and the Fatherhood Institute as well as journals and books. Search terms included key words: engaging /involving fathers; social work; gender; education; intervention; fathers; impact; child; well-being; . After using a systematic approach and reviewing the collection of literature in regards to the engagement of fathers in social work intervention, a number of themes emerged in which the researcher believed were pertinent to service users and families within the social services system. The themes highlighted from the literature are as follows; perpetrators were ignored, women were blamed by professionals for bad parenting, reluctance to re engage with services due to fear of having children removed, low engagement at children’s centres, need for multi agency and holistic provision, attachment issues, child development , educational achievement and social development. â€Å"How engaging fathers in social work intervention impacts on the well being of children. Families can be a source of strength and resilience for children, but in a small number of cases, families can be a source of risk. The vast majority of parents want what is best for their children, and some disadvantaged families who manage to break the cycle of disadvantage can be described as resilient (Cabinet Office, 2007, p. 13). Registered charity, The Family Right’s Group is an advice group for families who need to be, or are involved with children’s services because of welfare co ncerns or needs, and it places importance on kinship, family care options and family group conferences. Telephone conversations have detailed that victims of domestic violence, whose children are under child protection plans, feel blamed rather than supported over the behaviour of ex-partners. The Family Right’s Group offers them peer support and somewhere to vent their anger and frustration (Moore, 2012, [Online]. However, social workers carrying out core assessments for suspected child abuse will suggest that the couple should separate rather than risk the child staying with the alleged perpetrator. The parent will be given the choice by Children’s services to choose between the partner and the child as the child is viewed not to be safe while the couple are still together (Moore, 2012, [Online]). In response to the new General Medical Council guidance on child protection, Chief Executive of the Family Rights Group, Cathy Ashley stated that it is usual for families who have children in a child protection plan to feel alone or alienated and angry, and this is an added stress factor for the family and their environment. In addition, it has been shown that parents did not always get the support they needed with parenting at an early stage, or to address their own health needs such as depression or if they were a victim of domestic abuse (Family Rights Group, 2012, [Online]). Continuing with her response, Cathy Ashley also stated that â€Å"93% of children who are subject to a child protection plan live at home†. This means that it is vital that the families and social work professions work co-operatively to ensure the families contribute, understand and participate in the child protection plan for it to work. Engaging families is crucial to safeguarding, and a break down in any of these factors results in care proceedings where children are removed from their families (Family Rights Group, 2012, [Online]). In addition, in a meta-analysis involving 92 studies, Amato and Keith, (1991, pp. 6-46), found that compared to children from intact families, children from separated families were at a higher risk of developing mental health and well being issues such as depression, anxiety, aggression and delinquency. A paper by Keeling and Wormer, (2012, pp. 1354-1370), using purposive sampling of interviews from fifteen women who had experienced domestic violence, found that there was a lack of trust towards social workers in that the women did not feel free to disclose family violence due to fears tha t the child would be taken away. Where the social worker was aware of a violent partner, the focus was on the needs of the child rather than the needs of the domestic violence victim. Not only that, the interviews identified that where professionals could have used a strengths-based model to empower the women in decision making, they instead told the women what they should do, thereby subjecting them to further control and disempowerment, contrary to the social work values of anti oppressive practice of service user choice and self determination. Keeling and Wormer, (2012, pp. 1354-1370), contends that that this imbalance of power between the service user and the professional contributes to controlling strategies other than the violence used by the abusive partner, and the considerable dominance and power wielded by them remains unchallenged; of the eight basic tactics used to maintain control, the perpetrator may use isolation, threats, denying and blaming to control women. These tactics may be seen to be reinforced by those professionals who use a disempowering and oppressive social work approach towards the victim of abuse, which only contributes to her sense of powerlessness and low self esteem However, by ignoring the perpetrator, his actions are not being addressed, and this conveys the message that he can continue with his behaviour unchallenged. O’Hagan (1997, p. p 33-34), promotes this disempowering approach in his list of five potential causes for social workers avoiding men. These are: * Public and professional perceptions of the women’s traditional role as the carer who should protect and nurture their children and view the man as the breadwinner; * Hostility and distrust of men, particularly as some feminists have the view that men are the source of all women’s problems. Therefore it is important that feminist social workers are aware of, and do not allow an attitude of hostility and distrust towards men to exclude men from the intervention. Lack of training, as newly qualified social workers may lack experience and the skills and knowledge to engage constructively with violent partners or men who are reluctant to engage with services. * Fear of men in whom social workers may feel intimidated by a violent partner or anticipate violence to their own person due to growing violence towards professionals, or from other colleagues’ experiences. A different perspective on this can be found in the third part of a three part qualitative project by Spratt and Callan (2004, p. 17), which examined the views of parents whose children were subject to child protection plans. Many of the parents did not know why the social workers were visiting after the initial contact visit, with some feeling that they were being ‘checked up on’ and others feeling that the social worker was more interested in what was going on in the family situation rather than engaging with their problems. This indicates a lack of transparency and no explanation on the part of the social worker to clarify the purposes of continued contact, and failure to meaningfully engage with the family. In a Community Care (2010, [Online]) article, Natalie Valois stated that ‘In a female-dominated profession there is a tendency for women to talk to women about children, but fathers or a father figure can provide valuable input when given the right support. ’ Evidence pointed to basic information of the father’s details missing from case files, from which we can deduce that fathers with behavioural issues were not being engaged by social services, and therefore did not receive support to address their issues in order to help them to change their behaviour if it was negative. Research from the Department of Education (2011, p. p i-iii [Online]), showed that the 2007 Family Pathfinder programme found that when local authorities worked intensively to address the needs of families with multiple and complex problems, there were significant improvements in outcomes for 46% of the families supported by the Family Pathfinders and almost 31% of the families supported by the Young Carer Pathfinders. The research showed that families’ complex problems could include debt, poor housing, disability, poor parenting, substance misuse, harmful family relationships, poor mental health, low educational outcomes and child protection concerns. However, evidence from the 27 local authorities who took part in the project suggested that 3 critical elements played an important part in the delivery and engagement process for improved outcomes. These were; a persistent and assertive key worker who was highly skilled and experienced, and who worked intensively with families providing leadership and management as well as specialist support; a sturdy framework of support, including a comprehensive assessment of all family members and comprised of a multi-disciplinary team around the family (T. A. F. ) to identify needs and to deliver the right support; an intensive and flexible family focused response which addressed several family issues, and phased in over a continual period of time (DoE, 2011, p. p i-iii). Attachment and resilience Attachment theory centres on the importance of early attachment relationships for physical and emotional well being, and theoretical frameworks that inform practice around child protection and well-being are attachment, resilience and ecological perspectives that encompass community networks and resources, wider family networks and the choices and wishes of the child (Stein, 2005, p. 2). Barnado’s Babyfather Initiative (2013, [Online]), maintains that research shows that children who grow up without a father or strong male role model, are more likely to live in poverty, be at higher isk of health problems, have lower achievements in school and are more likely to offend in later years. Correspondingly, the Mental Health Foundation (2013? , [Online]), state that although most things on their own do not lead to mental health problems in children, there are risk factors that can trigger problems such as parents separating or divorcing, living in poverty or being homeless, being bu llied or physically or sexually abused, having a parent with mental health problems or problems with alcohol. Moreover, an ongoing longitudinal study from 1992, published by the Centre for Research (2008, p. p vi-18) found that while boys engaged more in anti social behaviours, they were more likely to have better mental health than girls, who were more pro social, and that socio economic background influenced a child’s educational achievement more than their well-being, although children from disadvantaged schools had a lower overall achievement rate. The findings also reported that the gender differences in children’s educational achievements and outcomes are so varied that when defining well-being, it is important to take into account that because of these multiple dimensions, boys and girls will react differently as personal difficulties become apparent. Findings from a research brief by Suzanne Menestrel, (1999, [Online]) indicated that children benefitted from, and responded to firm but warm parenting styles, as a study of preschool boys who received positive compliments and praise achieved better results in cognitive tests than other boys whose fathers showed little or no interest in their son’s achievements. Similarly, fathers’ use of harsh and inconsistent discipline was found to impact negatively on their son’s emotional behaviour whilst fathers whose children had high educational achievement and fewer behaviour problems, were involved in positive activities with their children such as helping with homework, eating together, and spending time together going on outings. Findings from the Social Exclusion Task Force, (2007, [Online]), show that parent’s interest in their children’s education and their involvement with very young children plays a crucial role in the development of literacy, numeracy and cognitive skills which can have a significant impact on educational achievement into adolescence. Nevertheless, research on the mental, physical and emotional health and development of children claims that children who witness domestic violence in the home are more likely to have their attitudes to violence affected by it. The research, which was reported in a research briefing by Worrall, Boylan and Roberts (2008, [Online]), showed that these children achieved significantly poorer outcomes than those who did not live with domestic violence. Indeed, an Equal Opportunities Commission report (2007), cited in the research briefing by Worrall, Boylan and Roberts (2008, [Online]), found that around 750,000 children witness domestic violence in the UK every year resulting in the stress of homelessness when parents separate, loss of personal belongings, friends and ongoing intimidation from the perpetrator. This suggests that in cases such as these, it has to be considered whether or not the continued contact with a violent or abusive father would be in the best interests and well being of the child, and consequently how would any attempts to engage with the perpetrator impact positively on the mother and child and the child’s relationship to the father. Research from a briefing by the Institute for American Values by Bradford Wilcox and Dew (2008, [Online]), shows that poverty and unemployment contributes towards fathers’ maltreatment of children compared to more financially stable fathers. Whilst unemployment decreases the fathers’ sense of self worth, the stresses of living in poverty, such as not being able to provide for the family, was shown to increase the likelihood of the father being abusive. This can also be seen to be a way for the father to feel powerful and in control when he is essentially in a powerless position in life. Equally, sexual abuse and violent behaviour towards their children was attributed to father’s use of drug and alcohol as it lowered their inhibitions. In addition, fathers who were not involved in the lives of their children were shown to be more likely to engage in physical or sexual abuse, which affirms the theory that not engaging with the perpetrator effectively gives them the go ahead to behave as they wish (Bradford Wilcox and Dew, 2008, [Online]). On the other hand, findings from a research paper by David Utting (2007, p. 5) showed that young children’s relationships with their mothers affect their development more than child – father relationships. Studies have also shown that father’s involvements impact more on teenager’s development and achievement in school. Young fathers Florsheim Ngu, (2003) (cited in Fatherhood Institute, 2010, [Online]) ound that young men with a history of psychopathology discovered pre-natally, report higher rates of physically punishing behaviour toward their child later, and young fathers of expectant mothers who report poor relationships with their own parents during the pre natal interview, have higher child abuse potential scores at follow up assessment, which are important indicators of future child abuse that can be missed if young fathers are not assessed pre natally, therefore professionals who do not asses young fathers pre-natally may miss important indicators of future child abuse. A study by Florsheim et al (2012, [Online]) of 105 randomly chosen pregnant adolescents and their partners, who were partaking in a Young Parenthood Programme designed to facilitate positive parenting and develop interpersonal skills among adolescent parents, asserts that psychological and physical health risks among children has been linked to hostile co-parenting relations, harsh parenting and paternal disengagement. Findings in a research summary by the Fatherhood Institute (2010, [Online]), conclude that teenage mothers with positive partner support tend to be less punishing and rejecting towards their children whereas young mothers who perceive their partner to be supportive tend to report lower levels of depression and psychological distress, higher self-esteem and exhibit more positive attachment behaviours towards their infants and have a higher parenting capacity. This promotes the notion that support by the father not only tends to strengthen the mother’s child-rearing skills but also fosters healthy emotional, cognitive and social development in the child, particularly where father and child have a close relationship. This suggests that the lack of perceived support by the father and lack of involvement by the father is associated with young mother’s parenting stress and the increased potential for child abuse or neglect. It also indicates that the presence of a partner essentially affects the relationship between young mothers and behavioural difficulties in the child. This can be compared to the poorer mental health of women who do not have a stable partnership (Fatherhood institute 2010, [Online]). Ministry of Justice figures (2012, [Online]), show that the male prison population in England and Wales in March 2013 was 80,667, and facts and figures from Action for Prisoner’s Families (2012, [Online]), put the number of children who experience their father going to prison each year at around 200,000. When combined, these figures and the number of children who witness domestic abuse each year indicate a significant amount of vulnerable children that need to experience the benefits of good social work practice to engage absent fathers in a positive way that contributes to the children’s emotional well-being and resilience. In spite of the restrictions of prison, fathers can still benefit a child’s life as a study of fathers in prison by Barclay and Lupton (cited in Daniel and Taylor, 2008, p. 02) shows that fathers can be very open about expressing their love for their children. They state that a father who is absent due to a prison term may lose contact with the child through a poor relationship with the child’s mother, or other socio economic factors such as the expense of the cost of transport for visits, but may still have a close and highly fulfilling relationship with the child. This positive contribution to a child’s overall well being from an absent father may be missed if the professional assumes that an imprisoned father has no positive role to play as a significant adult in the child’s life, and research from Barnado’s No. 8 Policy and practice briefing (2000, [Online]), also shows that fathers in prison who stay in touch with their children and engage in prison parenting programmes are less likely to reoffend. From this we can infer that due to the lack of contact, the child may experience a range of emotions, manifesting in feelings of grief, hurt, betrayal, anger, anxiety and sadness, which can all be directed at the remaining parent, usually the mother, who becomes the focus of the child’s expression of anger, resulting in a difficult relationship between the mother and child. Therefore the child may not thrive if there are no other positive resilience factors in their extended family or social network (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. p 202 – 208). A qualitative report by Cundy (2012, [Online]), highlighted the needs and experiences of 6 young fathers aged between 16 to 24 in England, and revealed the opportunities that are present when fathers are supported by services, and the obstructions that occur when there is a lack of support. It was found that the family voluntary sector played an important role in raising awareness of father’s needs and in working with statutory services, whilst advocating an integrated approach of support from different agencies to support young fathers. Cundy’s report found that teenage fathers are three times more likely than non fathers to fail to complete secondary education; similarly they are more likely to be not in education, employment or training (NEET). Findings show that the school years are the optimal time to address a range of risk behaviours in young fathers (Cundy, 2012, [Online]). Cundy (2012, [Online]), also found that there are two key points to engage in effective intervention with young fathers, and that is as soon as they find out about the pregnancy or while they are still in education. Parenting and family support remains one of the key services at the heart of Children’s Centres and they have taken the initiative to engage fathers through clubs exclusively for dads on Saturdays and other activity days for fathers and children, as it was found that young fathers did not partake in activities that involved mothers. Moreover, Sure Start children’s’ centres provide support for families with children under 5 years, and access can be gained to multi disciplinary teams of professionals, seamless services and information (Social Exclusion Task Force, 2007, [Online]). A research summary from The Fatherhood Institute (2010, [Online]), argues that professionals are reluctant to engage with young fathers as their views are usually perceived to be irrelevant, and that some services try to engage men in more traditional feminine roles and activities, rather than encouraging male identity roles for fathers in their own right with their children. The research showed that father’s involvement was influenced by the quality of the relationship with their baby’s mother and that young father’s attitudes towards the pregnancy impacts on the mother’s own childbirth experience. According to a Joseph Rowntree report by Katz et al, (2007, [Online]), there are three types of barriers to inclusion in mainstream preventative services that parents face, and these are physical and practical, social and stigma. The physical and practical barriers are that parents lack knowledge about services, what support they can offer and the availability, also costs and access to transport for groups with a disability, parents with pushchairs and long hours of work. Social barriers can be cultural, and research identified that fathers, disabled parents, black minority and ethnic parents, and parents in poverty face exclusion and difficulties due to the inability to speak English and lack of bilingual staff, or a preference to consult with religious leaders rather than with professionals (Katz et al, 2007, [Online]). Furthermore, lone parenthood and lower socio economic status was found to be more prevalent in black minority ethnic groups who were more dissatisfied with parenting information than white parents. Similarly, deaf and disabled parents’ involvement with support groups was found to be low, and they were also found to feel more isolated and stigmatised when they engaged with services. Other findings were that despite the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, only one fifth of parental support groups made extra efforts to include disabled parents (Katz et al, 2007, [Online]). Findings Findings are that positive partner support impacts on the mother’s mental health and parenting capabilities and children were found to be more resilient in these settings. Social workers who focused mainly on children’s needs in abusive relationships may have been based within children and family social work rather than Adults. Social workers are overworked and under pressure to be more efficient, they are time constrained by the market driven economy and new managerialism, but professionals must endeavour to build trust with women to empower them to feel comfortable enough to confide in. A major problem in domestic violence protection is the lack of inter agency co ordination; child welfare authorities have one focus, the child and domestic violence advocates for the victim. Gender sensitive skills must be used when working with vulnerable women (Keeling and Wormer, 2012, pp. 1354-1370), Women fear disclosing they are victims of domestic violence to social services as they might have their children taken away. Being able to engage fathers reduces hostile co-parenting that in turn reduces the risk of psychological and physical health risks in children. Evidence suggests that family based services rather than father based services are more likely to engage fathers although some fathers may prefer father’s only groups, and groups that have a clear purpose and outcome. Other fathers groups and services that are shown to be effective are ones that promote good communication with the mother and an element of authoritative parenting. Discussion of the implications for social work practice Gender stereotyping impacts on social work practice as it means that both parents are not given the opportunity to engage in a range of child care activities that reinforce good emotional attachment to significant adults in the child. Both genders can be nurturing carers and the father can be a significant adult and primary attachment figure in the child’s life (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. 18). Feminist theories and theories of oppression perceive gender roles to be socially constructed and are attributed and reinforced by society. These structural forces impact on the individual and should be taken into account by multi agency and professional workers when trying to engage fathers to adopt a role that is generally perceived to be feminised, in that it is norm ally seen to be a role for the opposite sex to carry out, such as childminding or child rearing (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, pp. 18-219) Furthermore, feminist theories question and challenge social stereotypes and constructs such as gender stereotypes and social norms that impact on behaviour and attitudes towards the opposite sex through socialisation and peer pressure. For example, a study of young men in Belfast by Harland (1997) (cited in Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. 218), found that they communicated emotional feelings through banter and humour, and concluded that male gender roles force boys to reject a wide range of emotions and expression that are perceived to be feminine when in fact they are just human emotions. However, we can infer from this that men prefer to use more factual communication as opposed to talking about feelings which may make them feel uncomfortable. Consequently, as most social workers are female and use communication skills that are based on how service users feel, men may feel more comfortable if they are asked what their opinions are rather than how they feel, as the line of questioning concerned with feelings is perceived to be more feminised, whereas asking an opinion is a more factual and masculine approach. Therefore, it may be prudent for the social worker to adjust their approach to communicating with some men to be more factual rather than emotional if it means they are more likely to engage and respond (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. 218). Similarly, men who work in child care saw themselves as being gender stereotyped as they were often pushed into a position of a ‘controller’ with difficult adolescents, which reduced their caring role to one of power, threat and intimidation to control the children. Needless to say, the male workers did not feel comfortable with this gender stereotyped expectation being imposed upon them (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. 219). However, Daniel and Taylor (2001, p. 222) argued that engaging with the perpetrator and giving the abusive or violent man the opportunity to explore what effects their own perhaps brutalised childhood has on their own parenting, runs the risk of using their past as an explanation for their behaviour, which in turn becomes an excuse for unacceptable behaviour. By engaging with the victim within the man, the practitioner may unintentionally shift the focus away from the man being responsible for his behaviour and result instead in asserting that violence is beyond the control of the individual, effectively giving him assent for his behaviour. Instead a model such as the cycle for change could be used which places responsibility of self and actions with the client. Conversely, the opposite is true of professionals’ engagement with women where the impact of childhood experiences is routinely taken account when considering their ability to parent, and reflection on their past is routinely encouraged. The balance between the child’s need for protection and the mother’s need for support is constantly addressed by social workers and health visitors, and anti discriminatory practice must drive the professional to offer the same opportunities to the father to reflect and develop a coherent account of childhood events and experiences (Daniel and Taylor, 2001, p. 22). Stereotyping, as well as professional’s assumptions about parenting in ethnic groups and how children are physically disciplined, can have devastating consequences as in the case of Victoria Climbie where there was a belief that it was culturally appropriate to severely punish children. This perception that different ethnic groups can justify physical punishment as a ‘cultural tradition’ led to the failure to recognise and challenge the abuse that eventually led to Victoria’s death (David Utting, 2007, p. ). Ultimately, it is the policies and culture of organisations that provide guidance for practice, but this should be weighted with personal and professional values in the BASW Codes of Practice, and unjust practices challenged accordingly. Organisations are made up of people and their social relationships which can be shaped by continuous change, and are in turn influenced by the policies, constraints, legislation, ethics and routines of the structure (Dominelli, 2002, p. 149). Moreover, social workers are required to work with clients who very often challenge their own personal values. To achieve change, radical social workers have focused on the cultural norms of the organisation in order to move the balance of power to clients and away from practitioners. However, while these challenges have brought the issue of oppression to the attention of professionals, and have highlighted the nature of contradictory relationships between professionals and clients, the impact on statutory social services has been minimal (Dominelli, 2002, p150). The pursuit for transformational change can be achieved when the people involved in the organisation can continue to challenge each other, but concur to achieve similar goals and how to reach them, such as effectively engaging with fathers in interventions and practice to achieve the best outcomes for the well-being of the child (Dominelli, 2001, p. 150). Research recommendation and conclusion My views and recommendations on the implications for social work practice, relating to my findings and evidence in the literature review, are that it is important to establish meaningful and empowering relationships holistically when intervening with families. This means using the Framework for Assessment for Children to explore positive relationships around the child and not just to focus on the mother. To enable better support for new fathers and fathers to be, there needs to be continued personal development and staff training opportunities in health services where young men may be excluded in maternity services due to lack of staff awareness and resources. Research shows that young fathers often have no, or limited contact with midwives, health workers or social workers (Fatherhood Institute, 2010, [Online]). Sure Start children’s centres operate at the heart of local communities and are essential early years settings that target young fathers for parenting and family support, and can refer them to Barnado’s BabyFather Initiative’s Fatherhood Parenting Programme. However there seems to be no data pertaining to the amount of fathers the children’s centres come onto contact with, therefore my recommendation is that this is an area that should be used to monitor fathers’ involvement with children and engagement with other services and agencies. (Fatherhood Institute, 2010, [Online]). Partnership working with local agencies must be continued and promoted, and the sharing of timely information with health bodies on family changes such as a new birth, a disabled child or a parent taken into custody, must be encouraged as it is important to enable the children’s centres to contact and assess whether extra support is needed by the family and whether to refer the family for other provision (Barnado’s, (2011, [Online]). Children’s centres must ask about the father whenever they have contact with a mother and keep a record of dads that attend. It should not be assumed that young fathers will want to attend the same groups as young mothers, and are more likely to attend targeted activities such as dad and baby days and sports events (Cundy, 2010 [Online]). Peer support groups must be utilised more for signposting by professionals, and in children’s centres, ‘youngdads. tv’ is online support for young dads made by the dads themselves. It gives addresses of parent support in their area, and local voluntary sector organisations. ‘Council of Young Dads’ is the steering group for youngdads. tv and run ‘own father support’ in the local community. Similarly, becoming a father can be a motivational factor for re engaging with education and gives an increased sense of responsibility. Young fathers can benefit from and must have access to mentors to discuss their needs in terms of education, career advice and their role as a parent. Equally, schools should authorise absences for young fathers to attend health appointments in order for them to feel part of the process of the pregnancy, and the Government should introduce parenting education for all secondary school pupils, plus support for young parents in school to gain parenting skills (Cundy, 2010 [Online]). Florsheim et al (2012, [Online]), found that a history of psychopathology in both young parents is a serious risk factor not only for the young adults, but for their children. Therefore a gap has been identified in that there is a need for prevention programmes that are designed to reduce risks associated with hostile co-parenting and young parenthood and that are designed to meet the needs of, and engage both parents. Young expectant fathers exhibiting a cluster of negative indicators in the Family Pack of Questionnaires and Scales, including a history of anti-social behaviour, drug-misuse and so on, are likely to engage in negative parenting practices once babies are born, therefore risk must be detected early on pre natally. This requires health workers to practice inclusively, ensuring that fathers are involved in antenatal and health check appointments, and are engaged with on a level similar to that of the mother to enable them to feel connected to, and part of, the life change that is happening to them (Fatherhood Institute, 2010, [Online]). With this in mind, it is my opinion that professionals must endeavour to fully risk assess all men involved in the care of children in families who require intervention. Failure to carry out a full risk assessment contributes to the danger pertinent to the child, and when risk is identified, the emphasis must be placed on the responsibility of the perpetrator and not the victim of abuse. Likewise, it is my view that support must be offered to the father who is willing and able to change, and this should be identified through assessment. When men are not willing to change, then support and intervention should be centred on the mother and child, and services must be provided that allows and empowers them to function autonomously and independently from the abusive father. To address sex-role gender stereotyping, and to encourage children to be more resilient, society must socialise children through education in gender equality that promotes no gender role expectations, or stereotyping. Girls must be taught to be autonomous and independent, and boys must be allowed to increase their ability to express emotion and nurturing qualities without being an object of fun or ridicule to their peers (Daniel, Taylor, p. 225). However, in my view, to have any long lasting effect, gender equality education would have to be supported by a change in government policy to curb the aggressive media advertising methods which use gender stereotyped themes and images to portray aspects of daily life that the general public are subjected to, and influenced by on a daily basis. Families were shown to be resilient when they recover from periods of adversity and have good outcomes. To encourage resilience in families, I recommend that professionals involved with families should be looking for strengths in the family and individuals’ relationships to build upon (Utting, 2007, p. 5). They should use strength based models as this promotes anti oppressive practice, empowers women and makes the imbalance of power between the service user and the professional more equal. In conclusion, organisational constraints, large caseloads and lack of resources can contribute to the pressure on social work professionals to meet targets, and results in the professional focussing intervention onto the mother as she is often the primary carer, and therefore viewed socially as the carer who has most influence on the child’s well-being (Shirani et al, 2011, [Online]). Fathers that are supported by services can benefit from parenting advice and support with education, anger management and substance misuse. Most fathers want to hange once they realise what impact their behaviour is having on their children. However, it was shown that some professionals found it hard to engage with young fathers as they did not place any importance on their view, which suggests that youth can be a barrier to services for young fathers if their views are not considered to be relevant or significant. From my perspective the range of literature pertaining to involvement with famili es where sexual abuse was a risk or had occurred was sparse, and demonstrated that there is a lack of studies involving service users in this area. Therefore I recommend that there needs to be more research in this field as it is paramount to contribute to knowledge and information that will underpin social work practice when intervening with sexually abusive fathers. From the literature reviewed, we can further conclude that it is evident that gender stereotyping impacts on the engagement of fathers in interventions, and suggests that organisational guidelines, managerial targets and time restrictions are not equitable with front line practices. Therefore, unless there continues to be challenges to organisational structure, there will always be a gap between theory and practice, and this only serves to sustain discriminatory practices. Therefore, it can be said that professionals’ failure to consistently challenge social constructions, such as gender roles and stereotyping results in discrimination when deciding which parent to focus on. In view of this, professionals must be constantly aware of their own values and biases, and ensure that these do not impact on their practice.